The British Rule in India

The British Empire in India was founded by Clive. He was the representative of the East India Company in India. He was twice the head of the administration—first from 1757-60 and second from 1765-67.

Clive defeated Siraj-ud-Daullah at the decisive Battle of Plassey in 1757. He gave stability and political status to East India Company by acquiring the Diwani rights of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.

Warren Hastings (1774-1785)—He was the first Governor General of India. He effected many reforms in the administration of the East India Company. He consolidated the Company's position in Bengal. He stemmed the tide of the increasing influence of the Marahattas. Clive laid the foundation of British rule in India; Warren Hastings strengthened it.

Lord Dalhousie (1848–1856)—It was under his Governor Generalship that the British fought the Second Sikh War in (1848–49). He also fought the Second Burmese War in (1852-53) and annexed Burma and Pegu to Indian dominion. He devised the notorious Doctrine of Lapse by which he annexed the states of Satara, Jhansi, Nagpur, Jaipur and Sambalpur. He effected many social reforms in India.

The first railway line in India was inaugurated in 1853 during his Governor-Generalship.

Lord Canning (1856–1862)—He was the last Governor General of India. In 1858 the post was designated as Governor General and Viceroy. The Chief event of his time was the first war of Indian Independence which broke out in 1857.

Important Events in World History

Magna Carta
It was signed in 1215 A.D. by King John II at Runnymede. It is treated as the "Charter of Liberties' according to which the English people would be governed by definite laws and not by whims of a despotic king. The elder Pitt, an eighteenth century Parliamentarian described the Magna Carta as the 'Bible of the English Constitution."

Renaissance
It is a name given to a transitional movement of Europe between the medieval and the modern ages. It revived the ancient ideals in literature, painting and architecture. It began in the 14th century and it reached its heyday in the 15th and 16th centuries.

The Glorious Revolution (England)
It is also known as Bloodless Revolution, occurred in England in 1688. It ended the despotic rule of the Stuarts in England and made Parliament supreme thereby inaugurating an English system of Government what is called constitutional monarchy.

Industrial Revolution (England)
It first started in England in the second half of the 18th century. With the rapid growth of applied science the power driven machines replaced hand work.

American War of Independence
It was fought by the settlers in America against the sovereignty of the British Empire, under the leadership of George Washington during 1776–83 America declared independence on July 4, 1776.

French Revolution (1789)
It took place in France in 1789. The intellectual background of this revolution was prepared by such French philosophers as Rousseau, Voltair and Montesquieu. Rousseau, preached the gospel of 'Liberty, Equality and Fraternity.' The revolutionaries executed King Louis XVI and his queen Marie Antoinette. Napoleon emerged as the strongman of France.

The Russian Revolution (1917)
In the 19th century most of Europe was having industrial revolution which brought with it democratic and liberal ideas. But Russia under the despotic Czars continued to be predominantly agricultural. The despots exercised their power ruthlessly. The standard of living of the people was deplorably low. The conditions were practically unbearable. The Soviet Council of workers sprang into action and a full scale revolt against the despotic government of Czar Nicholas was launched. A general strike was organised. The army refused to fire on the strikers. The Czar had to abdicate, and the country came first under the rule of the Mensheviks in May but soon after in October Bolsheviks took over. Lenin emerged as the strong man of Russia.

World War I (1914–1918) Parties
Germany, Austria, Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria were on one side and were called Central Powers. England, France, Serbia, Belgium, Japan, Russia were on the other side and were called the Allies. Italy joined the Allies in 1915 and the U.S.A. in 1917 against the Central Powers. The war ended on November 14, 1918. The Central Powers lost the war. This war led to the founding of the League of Nations in 1920.

World War II (1939–1945) Parties
Germany, Italy and Japan called the Axis Powers, fought on one side; U.K., U.S.S.R., France, U.S.A., Poland and Benelux countries etc., called the Allies, fought on the other side. The Axis Powers lost the war. The Allies were victorious. This war led to the founding of the U.N.O.

Disintegration of the Soviet Union
The Soviet Union came into existence on Nov. 7, 1917. After the Second World War it became a very powerful empire. It was the leader of the Communist bloc of countries and was a power to match the United States. The USA and the Soviet Union represented two distinct political ideologies : democratic and communistic respectively. Both were in confrontation with each other and were involved in a cold war. With the installation of Gorbachev as the Secretary General and President of the Soviet Union relations between the two countries improved and the cold war came to an end. A fierce anti-communist movement swept over the entire Europe following the liberal policy followed by Gorbachev with the result that the different units of the Soviet Union seceded from the union one after the other resulting in the end of the Soviet Union. On December 26, 1991 the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union passed a resolution dissolving the Soviet Union. The 70 years old Soviet Union was now no more.

Human Rights Charter
The General Assembly of the United Nations adopted Universal Declaration of Human Rights on Dec. 10, 1948. The Declaration recognises the inherent dignity and equality of all members of the human family. It recognises the basic human rights. United Nations Commission on Human Rights looks to their enforcement in every part of the world. The work of drafting the Human Rights Charter was done mostly by Rene Cassin Nobel Peace Prize Winner.

US Invasion of Iraq
The U.S.A. launched a massive attack on Iraq on March 20, 2003. This unilateral action of the U.S.A. on a sovereign country is a momentous event of the present world history. The pretext of the U.S.A. was the belief that Iraq possessed weapons of mass destruction and that Saddam Hussain was a cruel dictator. Therefore, the U.S.A.'s war on Iraq had two objectives : Removal of Saddam Hussain, the President of Iraq and disarming of Iraq. It was an unabashed aggression on a sovereign country, a demonstration of U.S.A.'s mighty military prowess.

The most ironic situation is that the Security Council in its resolution of May 22, 2003 gave the United States and Britain extraordinary powers to run the country and its lucrative oil industry. It, in a way, amounts to its helpless recognition of US war against Iraq. Never was this world body in such a supine and pitiable position as now. Although the political authority of Iraq was transferred to the Interim Iraqi Government on June 28, 2004, two days ahead of the scheduled date i.e., 30th June, 2004 it is yet uncertain whether the USA will give up the lure of the Iraqi oil for which it actually waged the war and whether it will withdraw all its forces from there. Elections to Iraqi parliament were held on January 30, 2005. Results were announced on Feb. 13, 2005 In these elections the Shia-dominated alliance secured simple majority. Eventually an Interim Government was formed. Jalal Talabani was chosen as the first democratically elected President of Iraq on April 6, 2005, and Ibrahim Jaafari nominated as the first democratically elected Prime Minister of Iraq on April 7, 2005. The interim Government under the leadership of Prime Minister Ibrahim Jaafari took oath of office on May 3, 2005, thereby completing the process of government formation. Under this government a new constitution was drafted. The new constitution was approved by the people with a good majority in the referendum in Oct. 2005. The Parliament got reconstituted under the new Constitution and a new government was formed. At present Iraq's President Jala Talabani and Prime Minister Nuri-al-Maliki are well in command of the new government.

Important Land Marks in the Constitutional Development of India

Pitt's India Act, 1784—It was passed to bring the affairs of the Company under the control of the British Parliament.

Transfer of the Administration of India to the Crown—Soon after the First War of Indian Independence (1857), the Act of 1858 was passed to transfer the rule of the East India Company to the Crown. Henceforth India was to be governed directly in the name of the Crown by the Secretary of State for India through a Council called the India Council. The Secretary of State was a member of the British Cabinet. The Governor-General of India now received the additional title of Viceroy.

Indian Councils Act, 1861—According to this Act non-official Indians were taken in the Executive Council and the Legislative Councils were enlarged. Portfolio system was introduced for the first time.

Indian National Congress, 1885—The Indian National Congress was founded in 1885 by A.O. Hume. The main purpose was to deal with the Indian demands and aspirations through an effective channel. The first session was presided over by W.C. Bannerjee at Bombay.

Indian Councils Act, 1892—It enlarged both the Imperial and Provincial Legislative Councils and increased the proportion of nonofficials and Indian members. The principle of election was introduced. The members could ask questions but not supplementary ones. They had a right to discuss the budget, but they were not given the right of vote over the budget.

Indian Councils Act, 1909 (Morley-Minto Reforms)—The Imperial Legislative Council was further enlarged providing for sixty members; the membership of Provincial Legislative Councils was doubled. The membership of the Executive Councils of Madras and Bombay also increased from 2 to 4. This Act conceded separate electorates to Muslims, thus inducting communalism in the political life of India.

Government of India Act, 1919 (Montague-Chelmsford Reforms)—It decentralized Indian administration to a great extent. Dyarchy was introduced in the Provinces. A bicameral legislature was set up at the centre :
(1) Lower House—Central Legislative Assembly consisting of 140 members
(2) Upper House—Council of States consisting of 60 members.

Simon Commission (1928)—The Simon Commission was appointed by the British Government to review the working of dyarchy and to suggest measures for further reforms. Its visit was boycotted by all shades of Indian opinion (because it did not include even a single Indian). It recommended the abolition of dyarchy, the establishment of Provincial Autonomy and some sort of Federal Government for the whole of India.

Government of India Act (1935)—This Act sought to introduce provincial Autonomy and establish an All India Federation. Provincial Autonomy was inaugurated in provinces in 1937, but the central part of the Act could not be enforced owing to the unwillingness of certain Provinces and rulers of Indian princely States to join the federation. Burma was separated from India. Congress ministries were installed in 1937, but they resigned following the break out of Second World War when England declared India also as a belligerent nation without consulting the Indian Leaders.

Cripps Mission (1942)—The British declaration of India as a belligerent nation in the Second World War without consulting the Indians touched off a new wave of resentment among the Indians. When the war was in its hottest phase, a realization dawned in 1942, upon the British Government that they could not ignore the Indian problem any further. They, therefore, sent Mr. Cripps to India on March 22, 1942 to resolve the constitutional problem of India. The proposals put forward by Mr. Cripps were not accepted by the Indians. Following the failure of these proposals, the Indians under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi decided to intensify their struggle to force the British to quit India.

Quit-India Movement (1942)—Quit-India Movement started on Aug. 9, 1942 following the passage of Quit-India Resolution by A.I.C.C. in Bombay on Aug. 8, 1942. The Movement took a violent turn. The Government suppressed it by arresting important leaders including Mahatma Gandhi.

The Mountbatten Plan (1947)—The Mountbatten Plan of June 3, 1947 laid down detailed principles of the partition of India and the speedy transfer of political power in the form of Dominion Status to the newly born Dominions of India and Pakistan.

Indian Independence Act, 1947—The Act incorporated the Mountbatten Plan of June 3, 1947. On the 15th August, 1947 India achieved independence and Pakistan was created as a separate Dominion on August 14, 1947.